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6월, 2024의 게시물 표시

property재산,소유물(→intellectual property, lost property, public property)부동산건물건물구내 intellectualityintellectualpower지력지성총명sconceupperworksintellectualforceintellectualfacultiesclydebrainpowerheadpieceexertintelligencenoeticintelligentialintellectualnessintellectiveingineintellectivelynoetic(s)intellectualprogress spirit정신영혼기분마음(특정한 유형의)사람(→free spirit) anima[UC]영혼정신생명[the ~][심리]아니마((남성의 여성적 특성, cf. ANIMUS 3)) Psyche[p~; the ~, one’s ~] (육체와 대비하여) 영혼, 정신(cf. CORPUS)심리 정신, 프시케 Geist(철학의) 정신, 영혼; 지적 감수성, 지적 정열 Maldek영구파문永久破門 jiva영혼힌두교대아(大我)(Atman)의특정한표현으로생각되는개개의영혼자이나교비영혼(ajira)에대해개개의영혼또는생명의원리온갖색깔을가진업(業)에의한물질에의해착색된투명한수정으로비유된다.(집합적으로)이것들의모나드(monads)우주의생기의원리로생각되고있다. 인격人格personalitycharacter PC방PC房PCBangAPCbang(Korean:PC방;lit.PCroom)isatypeofinternetcafeorLANgamingcenterinSouthKorea hypostasis[철학]근본,본질,실체(개념의)구체화의학혈액강하[침체](삼위일체의)한위격(位格) ousia실체 substance실체물질본질핵심요지 hypostatization실체시(視)실체화 stereography입체[실체]화법((입체기하학의한분야))입체사진술 stereogram(물체의실체적인상을그대로표현한)실체화(畵)입체화실체도표(=STEREOGRAPH) substantialize실체로하다실체화하다실재시키다실재화하다실현하다실지로나타내다 incorporeity[U]실체[형태]가없음무형비물질성무형적존재 illusiveness착각을일으키게함실체가없음 bodilessness몸통이없음형체[실체]가없음 prakriti힌두교(상캬(Sankhya)파철학에서)프라크리티근본물질푸루샤(순수정신원리)의영향을받으면서거기에서물질적우주와정신적우주가전개하는근원적실체 self-definition자기(의본질[실체]의)인식[확인] 임경업(林慶業, 1594년 12월 13일(음력 11월 2일) ~ 1646년 8월 1일(음력 6월 20일)) 강감찬(姜邯贊[1] 또는 姜邯瓚[2], 948년 음력 11월 19일~1031년 음력 8월 20일) 알렉산드로스 3세 메가스Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος, romanized: Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC) 한니발 바르카Hannibal (/ˈhænɪbəl/; Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, romanized: Ḥannībaʿl; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) 조지 H. W. 부시(George Herbert Walker Bush, 1924년 ~ 2018년) 조지 W. 부시(George Walker Bush, 1946년 ~ ) Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901)빅토리아 여왕(영어: Alexandrina Victoria, 1819년 5월 24일 ~ 1901년 1월 22일) Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, DStJ, PC, FRS, HonFRSC (née Roberts; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013)마거릿 힐더 대처(영어: Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, 1925년 10월 13일 ~ 2013년 4월 8일) 朝鮮世宗（朝鮮語：조선 세종／朝鮮世宗 Joseon Sejong；1397年5月7日[1]—1450年4月8日），姓李，諱祹（朝鮮語：이도／李祹 Yi Do），字元正（朝鮮語：원정／元正 Wonjeong），朝鲜王朝的第4代国王 阿提拉或亞提拉等（Attila，又常稱Attila the Hun，約406年—453年），是自約434年時至其過世時為匈人最主要的大单于之一 Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte KB (29 September [O.S. 18 September] 1758 – 21 October 1805) 고려 태조(高麗 太祖, 877년 1월 31일(음력 1월 14일)[1] ~ 943년 7월 4일(음력 5월 29일) 세종(한국 한자: 世宗, 중세 한국어: ·솅조ᇰ[1], 1397년 5월 15일 (음력 4월 10일)[2] ~ 1450년 3월 30일 (음력 2월 17일))은 조선의 제4대 국왕(재위 : 1418년 9월 9일 ~ 1450년 3월 30일) Douglas MacArthur (26 January 1880 – 5 April 1964) 道格拉斯·麥克阿瑟（英語：Douglas MacArthur，1880年1月26日—1964年4月5日） 唐高宗李治（628年7月21日—683年12月27日） 撒切尔女男爵玛格丽特·希尔达·撒切尔 LG OM PC FRS FRIC（英語：Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher，/ˈθætʃɚ/ ( 聆聽)；1925年10月13日—2013年4月8日） 伊丽莎白二世（英語：Elizabeth II；1926年4月21日[註 1]—2022年9月8日），全名伊丽莎白·亚历山德拉·玛丽（英語：Elizabeth Alexandra Mary） 伊丽莎白一世（英語：Elizabeth I；1533年9月7日—1603年3月24日），于1558年11月17日至1603年3月24日任英格兰和爱尔兰女王 溫斯頓·倫納德·斯賓塞-邱吉爾爵士，KG，OM，CH，TD，DL，FRS，PC (Can)，RA（英語：Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill；1874年11月30日—1965年1月24日） 海軍中將第一代納爾遜子爵霍雷肖·納爾遜，KB（英語：Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson，1758年9月29日—1805年10月21日） 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 죽리(竹里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 용강리(曲江里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 중동리(中洞里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 대동리(大洞里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 교동리(校洞里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 증평리(曾坪里) 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 죽리(竹里) 107 충청북도(忠淸北道) 괴산군(槐山郡) 증평읍(曾坪邑) 교동(校洞) 183 경기도(京畿道) 인천시(仁川市) 동구(東區) 송림동(松林洞) 105 서울특별시(서울特別市) 영등포구(永登浦區) 봉천동(奉天洞) 62‐12 서울특별시(서울特別市) 영등포구(永登浦區) 봉천동(奉天洞) 347 서울특별시(서울特別市) 영등포구(永登浦區) 봉천동(奉天洞) 91 서울특별시(서울特別市) 영등포구(永登浦區) 봉천동(奉天洞) 345 人智冒瀆食肉物肉人肉人面畜顔欺賣詐妄偏誕矯誘僞到罔誣蒙調瞞詭變騙譎姦伋張謬誑抵犯迋諼訛謾讒豫謨諠訑訏詫譸拐眩㗄谩䛲侜謶赚诬瞒㓃倰誈骗诧賺诈谲诡騗諕幠誆诳䛫諆譠谖紿绐緿諔忚売㗈誔㪭㦒譧诪懗譤讆憰誷吪蚩𧫠𧨆𧸖𧫩𥊑𧫽𧩄我吾余予身民愚朕魚卬厶俺台儂蒙調瞞詭變騙譎姦伋張謬誑抵犯迋狡童凶黠能猾獪猾狡惡詐黠兇猾衣膚皮膚肤臚胪㱺肌表𤺧𦢚𦠄𤿘腅腠胕心志腹魂胸肺思腸中根寸神性胃腦本肝指膽膺宮緖意志感情臆腑意思㣺襟虛抱衿㲴傷暴殘毒凶費危蓋殃損厄殆克賊割禍忮慘曝虐癒踐疾㺑惎㥍刻残㲅㥇讒獵伤齕𣧝𣳅𢾃仇𢗏𢤵𨆎𤡙盖沴遏毀剝㐫敝𢦏㫧㬥㓙费狡龁枳䄃𣧑威𪗟损曷𨸷蠹擠礙葢䜛挤揍谗㦑㨈憨瘉蠧耗𠐣碍甾疚寇措惨贼旤祸狡猾獪㺒狯䛢姡㛿𤠖𢛛迌狡吏猾智狡情𡠹𧭇𠋬𡜶𤟋欺賣詐妄偏誕矯誘僞到罔誣攫㸕爴攘𤔗㸕爴𤔩攫𣀮𢺖殺死毒斷六殘減劍劉極兵克殊屠煞夷戮留去擊薨戕壓烹剿殛杀刘虔敲奪漁削越割篡簒收劫褫沒攫剝壤神性神悰胷䰟志肠膓肺腸肝腎㥽意向𦛄𦚍𦙞𦚾肚匘肊恖吋懷䐗䘳胆中脑脳幽緒宫䐉绪鑿虚虗褱懐凿怀作心三日不立文字憚恂愰思心想念意案魂觀端憶感情恖臆慮悰襟抱衿忌𠂺𡴓𢙦𠃼𢗁𢍄㣺䰟懷肊䘳観观覌肩胛胉䯋脻肩胛骨𣄤𩨹𣄘𩩦𩩘𩩲𦚑𦚌𡱎腎牡陰莖屌紫芝屪㞗𣬠𡳇𣬶肾龜龜龜寢不安席䘒牛腎不眠徹夜坐藏之馬陰藏陰縮𧗔越宿腎莖狗腎黃狗腎陰縱天宦鹿鞭鹿腎男莖形陰痿三之陰莖癌脧龍頭龜頭膣屄毴寶唐之陰門腟獨見之明聰明叡智唭越視靑盲三之視覺障碍人空銜下門步藏之貞操權見邪視觀監嘗看視覽審閱處八不用菑䃣䃣𤢪䃣靡窛𢵄葘中被倒竊姦盜偸攘偷窃𢿑𥨷徼襒忨媮婾剽盗姧㡪𢅼愉撟挢狡獪猾狡兔三窟㺒狯䛢𤠖𢛛姡㛿𡠹𧭇狡獪猾狡兔三窟㺒狯䛢𤠖𢛛姡㛿𡠹𧭇𠋬𡜶𤟋迌𠬍狡吏猾智狡情狡童萃厧峙𧽖崻濡滯留連僑侨宿眠寢睡伸寐寑寝㝛㝲暝𡨦𡪷𡪢𡫒臥寢伸俯偃懶卧躺𠥸𠑛寑䖙𣱐頫䫍飯食喫哺茹噬啜糊饌湌餐饋喰飵噍飮吸酌酒仰茶喫爵哈歃餐啐嚥飲啜坐居娑㘴㘸𥦊𨆃𠱯𢋇𡊎𥧚𡋲姬躦袴胯跨𦜮𢆋𧿉𦚬褲裤骻趶髋髖臗𣎑股腓股掌會陰乳鏡動脈輸血變譎姦伋張誑抵犯謬迋諼訛讒謾諠訑訏詫譸眩豫謨侜赚瞒骗賺拐紿㗄谩䛲謶诬㓃倰誈诧诈谲诡騗諕幠誆吪蚩诳䛫諆譠谖绐緿諔忚𧫠䄃威损曷𨸷蠹葢挤揍擠憨瘉礙蠧䜛谗㦑㨈𠐣耗碍甾疚寇惨贼祸措戝旤䄀毁践猟菑䃣逢打搥𢈹扑打討攻征叩批毆撻拷搏注扑攵拉朴斫撲攴搭挨杓椓击捶抌棒殴讨搷㩁摐搕搉朾挌扺槀挞挝刜反宇宙體반우주체식인체食人體식육체食肉體마물체魔物體짐승체獸禽畜體부정정사否定情事부정사음부정정교부정섹스부정결혼부정혼인부정통혼플레이아데스4대무법자630128-1067814朴鐘權的大億劫的削的磨的滅的處理的반사회성인격장애否定腐敗부정부패荷蘭네덜란드尼德蘭아틀란티스Atlantis준아틀란티스준성단준성운지구말데크Maldek리라Lyra베가VegaαLyrae안드로메다아플레이아데스莫無可奈當爲我亞流主義我人之常情不同否非否同非同非同否同不非人之常情나𢦠𣍹𢦓𢦖𢦐𠨐𩵋𨈟𦨶𩇶偺喒俺姎𢓲𨖍𢀹𦩎𦩗𠨂身民朕나我吾余予身民愚朕魚卬厶俺台儂自己侬余原始下等未開無智邪慝狡慝狡猾異他惰差別秀殊相象像空敵賊偸意識體我訝娥餓俄啞哦서울特別市龍山區靑坡洞三街서울특별시용산구청파동3가서울特別市龍山區靑坡洞서울특별시용산구청파동라마크리슈나(Ramakrishna, 1836년~1886년)용산공업고등학교(龍山工業高等學校)서울특별시영등포구봉천동62번지12호박종권패악무도 패덕무례 패륜지도에 대한 처리서부정결혼否定結婚부정혼인否定婚姻부정통혼否定通婚to negate; to de부정정교否定情交to negate; to denyfeeling; senti부정사음否定邪婬to negate; to denywrong; evil; d부정정사否定情事to negate; to denycircumstances;物肉畜生食肉畜生人肉畜生食人肉畜生REPTOIDE物肉人肉食肉食人人面畜顔持續的恒久的恒續的永遠的永劫的永續的永久的無始無終的永久破門削磨滅pneumanotchdegradationdemotionseizureplunderunauthorizedsharing영등급강등영등급강탈영등급무단공유靈等級降等靈等級强奪無斷共有公有食人식인食肉식육人肉인육원본능無限贖罪任意贖罪永久贖罪一時贖罪無斷贖罪淫獄等活地獄黑繩地獄衆合地獄叫喚地獄大叫喚地獄焦熱地獄阿鼻地獄大焦熱地獄八熱八寒地獄無間地獄무지無知미개未開원시原始하등下等야만野蠻무능無能物肉人肉食肉食人人面畜顔생각사고사색thoughtthinking계획ideathinkconsider기억remembrancerememberlookbackonbringcallsbsthtomind마음의지마음mind의향inclination의도intentionthinkofaboutintendplanmeanMaldek플레이아데스성단(Pleiades star cluster)안드로메다자리 대성운(Andromeda大星雲)거문고자리(라틴어: Lyra)Hercules (constellation)용산공업고등학교(龍山工業高等學校)서울특별시영등포구봉천동62번지12호서울특별시 영등포구 봉천동 91서울특별시 영등포구 봉천동 347서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 345서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 738서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 1625-25서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 1612-24서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 1604-13서울특별시 관악구 봉천동 738-291 낙원그린빌라 201서울특별시용산구청파동宿所숙소宿泊숙박住所地주소지居所거소하숙집民家민가聯立住宅연립주택蜂窩住宅봉와주택忠淸北道 曾坪郡 曾坪邑 龍江里 충청북도 증평군 증평읍 용강리忠淸北道 曾坪郡 曾坪邑 大洞里 충청북도 증평군 증평읍 대동리忠淸北道 曾坪郡 曾坪邑 中洞里 충청북도 증평군 증평읍 중동리忠淸北道 曾坪郡 曾坪邑 校洞里 충청북도 증평군 증평읍 교동리忠淸北道 曾坪郡 曾坪邑 曾坪里 충청북도 증평군 증평읍 증평리서울特別市龍山區靑坡洞identityPersonality인격人格정체正體정체성正體性identityPersonal identity영성靈性영격靈格혼령魂靈혼백魂魄soulspirit얼굴face낯안면顔面용안容顔visagespiritualitysoulthespiritoressenceofaperson靈魂ghost안드로메다 은하(영어: Andromeda Galaxy)메시에 31(M31) 또는 NGC 224얼굴(머리의앞쪽)face(literary)visage(표정)facelook(literary)countenance(체면)face持續的恒久的恒續的永遠的永劫的永續的永久的無始無終的永久破門削磨滅

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 property재산,소유물(→intellectual property, lost property, public property)부동산건물건물구내 intellectualityintellectualpower지력지성총명sconceupperworksintellectualforceintellectualfacultiesclydebrainpowerheadpieceexertintelligencenoeticintelligentialintellectualnessintellectiveingineintellectivelynoetic(s)intellectualprogress   spirit정신영혼기분마음(특정한 유형의)사람(→free spirit) anima[UC]영혼정신생명[the ~][심리]아니마((남성의 여성적 특성, cf. ANIMUS 3)) Psyche[p~; the ~, one’s ~] (육체와 대비하여) 영혼, 정신(cf. CORPUS)심리 정신, 프시케 Geist(철학의) 정신, 영혼; 지적 감수성, 지적 정열 Maldek영구파문永久破門 jiva영혼힌두교대아(大我)(Atman)의특정한표현으로생각되는개개의영혼자이나교비영혼(ajira)에대해개개의영혼또는생명의원리온갖색깔을가진업(業)에의한물질에의해착색된투명한수정으로비유된다.(집합적으로)이것들의모나드(monads)우주의생기의원리로생각되고있다. 인격人格personalitycharacter PC방PC房PCBangAPCbang(Korean:PC방;lit.PCroom)isatypeofinternetcafeorLANgamingcenterinSouthKorea hypostasis[철학]근본,본질,실체(개념의)구체화의학혈액강하[침체](삼위일체의)한위격(位格) ousia실체 substance실체물질본질핵심요지 hypostatization실체시(視)실체화 stereography입체[실체]화법((입체기하학의한분야))입체사진술 stereogram(물체의실체적인상을그대로표현한)실체화(畵)입체화실체도표(=STEREOGRAPH...
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Between 1205 and 1227, the Mongol Empire embarked on a series of military campaigns that ultimately led to the destruction of the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty in northwestern China. Hoping to both to plunder and acquire vassalage, Genghis Khan commanded some initial raids against the Western Xia before launching a full-scale invasion in 1209. This was the first major invasion conducted by Genghis, and his first major incursion into China. The Mongols began a siege of the Western Xia capital Yinchuan that lasted nearly a decade, during which the Mongols tried to divert a river to flood the city, but accidentally flooded their own camp instead. Ultimately, Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia surrendered to the Mongols in January 1210, marking the beginning of a decade of Western Xia vassalage under the Mongols, where they provided support for the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. However, when Genghis invaded the Islamic Khwarazmian Empire in 1219, the Western Xia attempted to break away from Mongol vassalage and form alliances with the Jin and Song dynasties. Angered by the betrayal of the Western Xia, Genghis Khan began a second campaign against them, sending a punitive expedition into Western Xia in 1225. Genghis intended to annihilate the entire Western Xia culture: his methodically destroyed their cities and countryside, and began besieging Yinchuan in 1227. In December , near the end of the siege, Genghis Khan died of unknown causes, which has been presented by some accounts as being the result of wounds he had suffered against the Western Xia. Following Genghis's death, Yinchuan fell to the Mongols, and most of its population was massacred. Background Main article: Western Xia The Western Xia dynasty emerged in 1038—also called "Xi Xia", the "Tangut Empire", or "Minya"—and eventually controlled what are now the northwestern provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, eastern Qinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang, southwest Inner Mongolia, and southernmost Outer Mongolia.[1][2][3] A fairly small state, Western Xia struggled against its larger and more powerful neighbors, the Liao dynasty to the east and northeast, and the Song dynasty to the southeast. When the Jin dynasty emerged in 1115 and displaced the Liao, Western Xia eventually accepted vassal status to the new Jin empire. Aiding Jin in their wars against the Song, Western Xia gained thousands of square miles of former Song territory. However, over many years the relations between Western Xia and Jin gradually declined. Upon the death of its fourth ruler, Emperor Renzong, Emperor Huanzong took the throne and Western Xia's power began to fail. Though militarily inferior to neighboring Jin, the Western Xia still exerted a significant influence upon the northern steppes. The state often welcomed deposed Kerait leaders because of close trade connections to the steppes and because of the possibility of using the refugees as pawns in the Mongolian Plateau.[4] In the late 1190s and early 1200s, Temüjin, soon to be Genghis Khan, began consolidating his power in Mongolia. Following the death of the Keraites leader Ong Khan to Temüjin's emerging Mongol Empire in 1203, Keriat leader Nilqa Senggum led a small band of followers into Western Xia.[4] However, after his adherents took to plundering the locals, Nilqa Senggum was expelled from Western Xia territory.[4] Preliminary raids Using his rival Nilga Senggum's temporary refuge in Western Xia as a pretext, Temüjin launched a raid against the state in 1205 in the Edsin region.[4][5][6] The Mongols plundered border settlements and one local Western Xia noble accepted Mongol supremacy.[7] During a raid on Ganzhou (present-day Zhangye), the Mongols captured the son of the city's commander.[8] This young boy joined Mongol service and took a Mongol name, Chagaan, and eventually rose through the ranks to become commander of Temüjin's personal guard.[9] The next year, 1206, Temüjin was formally proclaimed Genghis Khan, ruler of all the Mongols, marking the official start of the Mongol Empire, while Li Anquan killed Huanzong of Western Xia in a coup d'état and installed himself as Emperor Xiangzong. In 1207, Genghis led another raid into Western Xia, invading the Ordos Plateau and sacking Wuhai, the main garrison along the Yellow River, before withdrawing in 1208.[6][10] Genghis then began preparing for a full-scale invasion. By invading Western Xia, he would gain a tribute-paying vassal, and also would take control of caravan routes along the Silk Road and provide the Mongols with valuable revenue.[11] Furthermore, from Western Xia he could launch raids into the even more wealthy Jin dynasty.[12] First invasion (1209–1210) Mongol invasion of Western Xia in 1209 In 1209, Genghis undertook his campaign to actually conquer Western Xia. Emperor Xiangzong requested aid from the Jin dynasty, but the new Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji refused to send aid, stating that "It is to our advantage when our enemies attack each other. Wherein lies the danger to us?"[13] After defeating a force led by Gao Lianghui outside Wulahai, Genghis captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River, defeating several cities as he went, until he reached the fortress Kiemen which guarded the only pass through the Helan Mountains to the capital, Yinchuan.[4][13][14] Containing an army of up to 70,000, plus 50,000 reinforcements, the fortress proved too difficult to capture, and after a two-month stand-off the Mongols feinted a retreat, luring the garrison, led by Weiming Linggong, out onto the field where it was easily destroyed.[13][14] His path now open, Genghis advanced to the capital. Well fortified, Yinchuan held about 150,000 soldiers, nearly twice the size of the Mongol army.[15] One of their first endeavors at siege warfare, the Mongols lacked the proper equipment and experience to take the city. They arrived at the city in May, but by October were still unsuccessful at breaking through.[4] Genghis attempted to flood the capital by diverting the river and its network of irrigation canals into the city, and by January 1210 the walls of Yinchuan were nearly breached. However, the dike used to divert the river broke, and the ensuing flood wiped out the Mongol camp, forcing the Mongols to take the higher ground.[4] Despite this setback, the Mongols still posed a threat to Western Xia, and with the state's crops destroyed and no relief coming from the Jin, Emperor Xiangzong agreed to submit to Mongol rule, demonstrating his loyalty by giving a daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and paying a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.[16] Mongol vassalage (1210–1224) In 1210, Western Xia attacked the Jin dynasty as punishment for their refusal to aid them against the Mongols.[17] The following year, the Mongols joined Western Xia and began a 23-year-long war against Jin. The same year Li Anquan abdicated the throne, and subsequently died, after Emperor Shenzong seized power. However, despite aiding the Mongols against Jin, in 1217 when Genghis Khan requested help for his Central Asian campaigns, Western Xia refused to commit troops, and as a warning the Mongols besieged the capital before withdrawing.[18][19] In 1219, Genghis Khan launched his campaign against the Khwarazmian dynasty in Central Asia, and requested military aid from Western Xia. However, the emperor and his military commander Asha refused to take part in the campaign, stating that if Genghis had too few troops to attack the Khwarazmian dynasty, then he had no claim to supreme power.[11][20] Infuriated, Genghis swore vengeance and left to invade Khwarazm, while Western Xia attempted alliances with the Jin and Song dynasties against the Mongols.[21] Second invasion (1225–1227) Mongol invasion of Western Xia, 1226-1227 After defeating Khwarazm in 1221, Genghis prepared his armies to punish Western Xia for their betrayal. Meanwhile, Emperor Shenzong stepped down from power in 1223, leaving his son Xianzong in his place. In 1225, Genghis Khan attacked with a force of approximately 180,000.[22] After taking Khara-Khoto, the Mongols began a steady advance southward. Asha, commander of the Western Xia troops, could not afford to meet the Mongols as it would involve an exhausting westward march from the capital Yinchuan through 500 kilometers of desert. With no army to meet them in pitched battle, the Mongols picked the best targets for attack and as each city fell the Mongols would draw on prisoners, defectors, supplies, and weapons to take the next one. Enraged by Western Xia's fierce resistance, Genghis annihilated the countryside, ordering his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went.[11][21][23] Two months after taking Khara-Khoto, the Mongols reached a point where the Qilian Mountains force the Ruo Shui eastward, about 300 kilometers south of Khara-Khoto. At this point, Genghis divided his army, sending general Subutai to take care of the westernmost cities, while the main force moved east into the heart of the Western Xia Empire. Genghis lay siege to Suzhou, which fell after five weeks. Genghis then moved to Ganzhou, the hometown of his general Chagaan. Chagaan's father still commanded the city garrison, so Chagaan attempted negotiations with him. However, the second-in-command of the city staged a coup, killed Chagaan's father, and refused to surrender. The city took five months to subdue, and though the now furious Genghis threatened vengeance, Chagaan convinced him to only kill the 35 conspirators who killed Chagaan's father.[24][25] In August 1226, Genghis escaped the heat by residing in the Qilian Mountains while his troops approached Wuwei, the second-largest city of the Western Xia empire. As no relief came from the capital, Wuwei decided to surrender and avoid certain destruction. At this point, Emperor Xianzong died, leaving Mozhu to deal with a collapsing state as the Mongols encroached on the capital. In Autumn, Genghis rejoined his troops, took Liangzhou, crossed the Helan Shan desert, and in November lay siege to Lingwu, a mere 30 kilometers from Yinchuan.[26] Here, in the Battle of Yellow River, Western Xia led a counter-attack with an estimated force of over 300,000 troops, engaging Mongol forces along the banks of the frozen river and canal systems. The Mongols destroyed the Western Xia troops, supposedly counting 300,000 bodies of Western Xia soldiers after the battle.[27][28] Upon reaching Yinchuan in 1227 and setting siege to the city, Genghis prepared to invade the Jin dynasty in order to neutralize any threat of them sending relief troops to Western Xia as well as setting the stage for a final conquest of the Jin empire. Genghis sent a force under his son Ögedei Khan and commander Chagaan toward the southern border, and they pushed into Jin territories along the Wei River and south Shaanxi, even sending some troops over the Qinling to threaten the Jin capital at Kaifeng. Genghis himself rejoined with Subutai and headed southwest to slice across an approximately 150 kilometer-wide territory mainly in present-day Ningxia and Gansu. Subutai crossed the northern parts of the Liupan mountain range, zigzagging from town to town throughout February and March, and conquered the Tao River valley and Lanzhou region. Meanwhile, Genghis went due south, following the Qing Shui river.[29][30] Back in Western Xia, Yinchuan lay besieged for about six months, and Genghis, himself busy directing a siege of Longde, sent Chagaan to negotiate terms.Chagaan reported that the emperor agreed to capitulate, but wanted a month to prepare suitable gifts. Genghis agreed, though secretly planned to kill the emperor. During the peace negotiations, Genghis continued his military operations around the Liupan mountains near Guyuan, rejected an offer of peace from the Jin, and prepared to invade them near their border with the Song.[31][32] However, in August 1227, Genghis died of a historically uncertain cause, and, in order not to jeopardize the ongoing campaign, his death was kept a secret.[33][34] In September 1227, Emperor Mozhu surrendered to the Mongols and was promptly executed.[35] The Mongols then mercilessly pillaged Yinchuan, slaughtered the city's population, plundered the imperial tombs west of the city, and completed the effective annihilation of the Western Xia state.[21][36][37][38] Death of Genghis Khan Main article: Genghis Khan § Death and burial In August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, Genghis Khan died. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action by Western Xia, falling from his horse, illness, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle.[22][33][38][39][40] The Galician–Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign.[33] Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirats.[41] Aftermath Mongol Empire at the time of Genghis Khan's death in 1227. Further information: Mongol conquest of China The destruction of Western Xia during the second campaign was near total. According to John Man, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field precisely because of Genghis Khan's policy calling for their complete eradication. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide, it was certainly very successful ethnocide."[42] However, some members of the Western Xia royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers.[43] A small Western Xia state was established in Tibet along the upper reaches of the Yalong River, while other Western Xia populations settled in what are now the modern provinces of Henan and Hebei. In China, remnants of the Western Xia persisted into the middle of the Ming dynasty.[44] Despite the death of Genghis, the Mongol Empire was at last successful in defeating Western Xia. Now, Genghis Khan's successors concentrated on unifying the rest of China. The Jin dynasty, already reeling from great losses of land and troops due to the ongoing Mongol campaign since 1211, finally collapsed in 1234. The Kingdom of Dali in southwest China fell in an invasion in 1253, and the Song in the south, after over four decades of a conflict begun 1235, surrendered in 1279.

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 Between 1205 and 1227, the Mongol Empire embarked on a series of military campaigns that ultimately led to the destruction of the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty in northwestern China. Hoping to both to plunder and acquire vassalage, Genghis Khan commanded some initial raids against the Western Xia before launching a full-scale invasion in 1209. This was the first major invasion conducted by Genghis, and his first major incursion into China. The Mongols began a siege of the Western Xia capital Yinchuan that lasted nearly a decade, during which the Mongols tried to divert a river to flood the city, but accidentally flooded their own camp instead. Ultimately, Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia surrendered to the Mongols in January 1210, marking the beginning of a decade of Western Xia vassalage under the Mongols, where they provided support for the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. However, when Genghis invaded the Islamic Khwarazmian Empire in 1219, the Western Xia attempted to brea...
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The Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, also known as the Mongol–Jin War, was fought between the Mongol Empire and the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in Manchuria and North China. The war, which started in 1211, lasted over 23 years and ended with the complete conquest of the Jin dynasty by the Mongols in 1234. Background Main article: Jin–Song Wars The Jurchen rulers of the Jin dynasty collected tribute from some of the nomadic tribes living on the Mongol steppes and encouraged rivalries among them. When the Mongols were unified under Khabul in the 12th century, the Jurchens encouraged the Tatars to destroy them, but the Mongols were able to drive Jin forces out of their territory. The Tatars eventually captured Khabul's successor, Ambaghai, and handed him over to the Jin imperial court. Emperor Xizong of the Jin dynasty had ordered Ambaghai executed by crucifixion (nailed to a wooden mule). The Jin dynasty also conducted regular punitive expeditions against the Mongol nomads, either enslaving or killing them. When the Tatars were in their original countries, during the Jin caitiff's Dading period [1161-1189] there was a rumor spoken in Yanjing and the Kitan areas saying: 'The Tatars come, the Tatars go, they'll chase His Lordship 'till he has nowhere to go!' The Chieftain of Ge, Yong, happened to hear of it and said in astonishment: 'Surely this means the Tatar people will bring disaster to my country!' and handed down a proclamation to the farthest frontiers and wastes to mobilize troops to destroy them. Every three years he would dispatch troops to the north to destroy and kill, and called it 'decreasing the number of fighting men.' Up to now, the people of the Central Plain are all able to remember this, saying: 'Twenty years ago in Shandong and Hebei, what house did not buy a Tatar to be a young slave?' All of these were those captured by soldiers. Today, among the great ministers of the Tatars, many were among those captured at that time and have lived within the state of Jin. Moreover, every year when their country came to present tribute [to the Jin] they would receive their rituals and offerings outside of the passes and then would drive them away, not allowing them to enter the border. The Tatars fled and concealed themselves in the sandy deserts and the hatred entered into the marrow of their bones... Temujin was infuriated about their bullying and insults and as a consequence of this attacked the frontier.[4] — Zhao Gong In 1210, a delegation arrived at the court of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–27) to proclaim the ascension of Wanyan Yongji to the Jin throne and demanded the submission of the Mongols as a vassal state. Because the Jurchens defeated the powerful steppe nomads and allied with the Keraites and the Tatars, they claimed sovereignty over all the tribes of the steppe. High court officials in the Jin government defected to the Mongols and urged Genghis Khan to attack the Jin dynasty. But fearful of a trap or some other nefarious scheme, Genghis Khan refused. Upon receiving the order to demonstrate submission, Genghis Khan reportedly turned to the south and spat on the ground; then he mounted his horse, and rode toward the north, leaving the stunned envoy choking in his dust. He gave the Jin emperor a very insulting message which the envoy dared not repeat upon his return to the Jin court. His defiance of the Jin envoys was tantamount to a declaration of war between the Mongols and Jurchens.[5] Mongol cavalry battle Jurchen warriors After Genghis Khan returned to the Kherlen River, in early 1211, he summoned a kurultai. By organising a long discussion, everyone in the community was included in the process. The Khan prayed privately on a nearby mountain. He removed his hat and belt, bowed down before the Eternal Sky, and recounted the generations of grievances his people held against the Jurchens and detailed the torture and murder of his ancestors. He explained that he had not sought this war against the Jurchens. At the dawn on the fourth day, Genghis Khan emerged with the verdict: "The Eternal Blue Sky has promised us victory and vengeance".[6] Wanyan Yongji, angry on hearing how Genghis Khan behaved, sent the message to the Khan that "Our Empire is like the sea; yours is but a handful of sand ... How can we fear you?"[7] Mongol conquest under Genghis Khan When the conquest of the Tangut-led Western Xia empire started, there were multiple raids between 1207 and 1209.[8] When the Mongols invaded Jin territory in 1211, Ala 'Qush, the chief of the Ongut, supported Genghis Khan and showed him a safe road to the Jin dynasty's heartland. The first important battle between the Mongol Empire and the Jin dynasty was the Battle of Yehuling at a mountain pass in Zhangjiakou which took place in 1211. There, Wanyan Jiujin, the Jin field commander, made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, he sent a messenger to the Mongol side, Shimo Ming'an, who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement, fought at Yehuling, the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. While Genghis Khan headed southward, his general Jebe travelled even further east into Manchuria and captured Mukden (present-day Shenyang). The Khitan leader Liu-ke had declared his allegiance to Genghis in 1212 and conquered Manchuria from the Jin. When the Mongol army besieged the Jin central capital, Zhongdu (present-day Beijing), in 1213, Li Ying, Li Xiong and a few other Jin generals assembled a militia of more than 10,000 men who inflicted several defeats on the Mongols. The Mongols smashed the Jin armies, each numbering in the hundreds of thousands, and broke through Juyong Pass and Zijing Gap by November 1213.[9] From 1213 until early 1214, the Mongols pillaged the entire North China plain. In 1214, Genghis Khan surrounded the court of the Golden Khan in Zhongdu.[10] The Jin general Hushahu had murdered the emperor Wanyan Yongji and enthroned Wanyan Yongji's nephew, Emperor Xuanzong. When the Mongols besieged Zhongdu, the Jin government temporarily agreed to become a tributary state of the Mongol Empire, presenting a Jurchen princess to Genghis Khan. But when the Mongols withdrew in 1214, believing the war was over after being given a large tribute by the Jurchens, Li Ying wanted to ambush them on the way with his forces (which had grown to several tens of thousands). However, the Jin ruler, Emperor Xuanzong, was afraid of offending the Mongols again so he stopped Li Ying. Emperor Xuanzong and the general Zhuhu Gaoqi then decided to shift the capital south to Kaifeng, above the objections of many courtiers including Li Ying. From then on, the Jin were strictly on the defensive and Zhongdu fell to the Mongols in 1215. The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.[11] After the shift of the Jin capital to Kaifeng, the Jin chancellor Wanyan Chenghui and general Moran Jinzhong were left to guard Zhongdu. At this point, one of the Jin armies defected to the Mongols and launched an attack on Zhongdu from the south, taking Lugou Bridge. Genghis Khan then dispatched his troops to attack Zhongdu again, led by the surrendered Khitan generals Shimo Ming'an, Yelü Ahai and Yelü Tuhua. Moran Jinzhong's second-in-command, Pucha Qijin, surrendered to the Mongols with all the troops under him, throwing Zhongdu into crisis. Emperor Xuanzong then sent reinforcements north: Yongxi leading the troops from Zhending and Zhongshan (numbers not given), and Wugulun Qingshou leading 18,000 imperial guards, 11,000 infantry and cavalry from the southwestern route, and 10,000 soldiers from Hebei Province, with Li Ying in charge of the supply train. Zhongdu fell to the Mongols on June 1, 1215. Then they systematically rooted out all resistance in Shanxi, Hebei and Shandong provinces from 1217 to 1223. Genghis Khan did however need to turn his attention to the east in 1219, due to another event in Central Asia and Persia. The Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death Muqali's advance In 1223, the Mongol general Muqali had struck into Shaanxi Province, attacking Chang'an when Genghis Khan was attacking Khwarezmia. The garrison in Chang'an, 200,000 under Wanyan Heda, was too strong and Muqali had to turn to besieging Feng County with 100,000 men. The siege dragged on for months and the Mongols were harassed by local militia, while Jin reinforcements were about to arrive. Muqali then died of illness, and the Mongols retreated. This was the siege in which the Western Xia troops supporting the Mongols gave up and went home, incurring the wrath of Genghis Khan. In the wars against the Mongols, therefore, the Jin relied heavily on subjects or allies like the Uighurs, Tanguts and Khitans to supply cavalry. Mongol conquest under Ögedei Khan Mongol Empire's Ayimaq [ja] in North China When Ögedei Khan succeeded his father, he rebuffed Jin offers of peace talks but the Jin officers murdered Mongol envoys.[12] Jin armies under Emperor Aizong successfully stopped several Mongol offensives, with major victories in the process, such as at the Battle of Dachangyuan in 1229, Battle of Weizhou (1230), Battle of Daohuigu (1231). The Kheshig commander Doqolqu was dispatched to attempt a frontal attack on Tong Pass, but Wanyan Heda defeated him and forced Subutai to withdraw in 1230. In 1231, the Mongols attacked again and finally took Fengxiang. The Jin garrison in Chang'an panicked and abandoned the city, pulling back to Henan Province with all the city's population. One month later, the Mongols decided to use a three-pronged attack to converge on Kaifeng from north, east and west. The western force under Tolui would start from Fengxiang, enter Tong Pass, and then pass through Song territory at the Han River (near Xiangyang) to reemerge south of Kaifeng to catch the Jurchens by surprise. Wanyan Heda learned of this plan and led 200,000 men to intercept Tolui. At Dengzhou, he set an ambush in a valley with several tens of thousands of cavalry hidden behind the crest of either mountain, but Tolui's spies alerted him and he kept his main force with the supply train, sending only a smaller force of light cavalry to skirt around the valley and attack the Jin troops from behind. Wanyan Heda saw that his plan had been foiled and prepared his troops for a Mongol assault. At Mount Yu, southwest of Dengzhou, the two armies met in a pitched battle. The Jin army had an advantage in numbers, and fought fiercely. The Mongols then withdrew from Mount Yu by about 30 li, and Tolui changed his strategy. Leaving a part of his force to keep Wanyan Heda occupied, he sent most of his men to strike northwards at Kaifeng in several dispersed contingents to avoid alerting Heda. On the way from Dengzhou to Kaifeng, the Mongols easily took county after county, and burnt all the supplies they captured so as to cut off Wanyan Heda's supply lines. Wanyan Heda was forced to withdraw, and ran into the Mongols at Three-peaked Hill in Junzhou. At this point, the Jin troops on the Yellow River were also diverted southwards to meet Tolui's attack, and the Mongol northern force under Ögedei Khan seized this opportunity to cross the frozen river and join up with Tolui – even at this point, their combined strength was only about 50,000. By 1232, the Jurchen ruler, Emperor Aizong, was besieged in Kaifeng. They together smashed the Jin forces. Ögedei Khan soon departed, leaving the final conquest to his generals. Mongol–Song alliance In 1233, Emperor Aizong dispatched diplomats to implore the Song for supplies. Jin envoys reported to the Song that the Mongols would invade the Song after they were done with the Jin – a forecast that would later be proven true – but the Song ignored the warning and rebuffed the request. They instead formed an alliance with the Mongols against the Jin. The Song provided supplies to the Mongols in return for parts of Henan. The fall of the Jin dynasty Main article: Mongol siege of Kaifeng Mongol invasion of the Jin dynasty (1211–1215) Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty (1230–1234) Conquest of Jurchen Jin by Mongols and Song Dynasty Mongol conquest of China Wanyan Heda's army still had more than 100,000 men after the battle at Mount Yu, and the Mongols adopted a strategy of exhausting the enemy. The Jin troops had little rest all the way from Dengzhou, and had not eaten for three days because of the severing of their supply lines. Their morale was plummeting and their commanders were losing confidence. When they reached Sanfengshan (Three-peaked Hill), a snowstorm suddenly broke out, and it was so cold that the faces of the Jin troops went as white as corpses, and they could hardly march. Rather than attack them when they were desperate with their backs to the wall, the Mongols left them an escape route and then ambushed them when they let down their guard during the retreat. The Jin army collapsed without a fight, and the Mongols pursued the fleeing Jin troops relentlessly. Wanyan Heda was killed, and most of his commanders also lost their lives. After the Battle of Sanfengshan, Mongol troops took the city of Yuzhou. Kaifeng was doomed and Emperor Aizong soon abandoned the city and entered Hebei Province in a vain attempt to reestablish himself there. Thousands of people offered a stubborn resistance to the Mongols, who entrusted the conduct of the attack to Subutai, the most daring of all their commanders. Emperor Aizong was driven south again, and by this time Kaifeng had been taken by the Mongols so he established his new capital at Caizhou (present-day Runan County, Henan Province). Subutai wished to massacre the whole of the population. But Yelü Chucai was more humane, and under his advice Ögedei Khan rejected the cruel proposal. The Jurchens used fire arrows against the Mongols during the defence of Kaifeng in 1232. The Mongols adopted this weapon in later conquests.[13] In 1233, after Emperor Aizong had abandoned Kaifeng and failed to raise a new army for himself in Hebei, he returned to Henan and established his base in Guide (present-day Anyang). Scattered Jin armies began to gather at Guide from the surrounding region and Hebei, and the supplies in the city could no longer feed all these soldiers. Thus Emperor Aizong was left with only 450 Han Chinese troops under the command of Pucha Guannu and 280 men under Ma Yong to guard the city, and dispersed the rest of the troops to forage in Su (in Anhui Province), Xu (present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province), and Chen (present-day Huaiyang, Henan Province). Pucha Guannu then launched a coup with his troops, killing Ma Yong and more than 300 other courtiers, as well as about 3,000 officers, palace guards and civilians who refused to cooperate with him. He made Emperor Aizong a puppet ruler and became the real master of the Jin imperial court. At this point the Mongols had arrived outside Guide and were preparing to besiege the city. The Mongol general Sajisibuhua had set up camp north of the city, on the bank of a river. Guannu then led his 450 troops out on boats from the southern gate at night, armed with fire-lances. They rowed along the river by the eastern side of the city, reaching the Mongol camp early in the morning. Emperor Aizong watched the battle from the northern gate of the city, with his imperial boat prepared for him to flee to Xuzhou if the Jin troops were defeated. The Jin troops assaulted the Mongol camp from two directions, using their fire-lances to throw the Mongols into a panic. More than 3,500 Mongols drowned in the river while trying to flee, and the Mongol stockades were all burned to the ground. Sajisibuhua was also killed in the battle. Pucha Guannu had achieved a remarkable victory and was promoted by Emperor Aizong. But Guide was not defensible in the long term, and the other courtiers urged Emperor Aizong to move to Caizhou, which had stronger walls and more provisions and troops. Pucha Guannu opposed the move, afraid that his power base would be weakened and arguing that Caizhou's advantages had been overstated. The Han Chinese general Shi Tianze led troops to pursue Emperor Aizong as he retreated, and destroyed an 80,000-strong Jin army led by Wanyan Chengyi (完顏承裔) at Pucheng (蒲城). Three months later, Emperor Aizong used a plot to assassinate Guannu, and then quickly began preparations to move to Caizhou. By the time new reports reached him that Caizhou was still too weak in defences, troops and supplies, he was already on the way there. The fate of the Jin dynasty was then sealed for good, despite the earlier victory against great odds at Guide. The Southern Song dynasty, wishing to give the Jin dynasty the coup de grâce, declared war upon the Jurchens, and placed a large army in the field. The remainder of the Jin army took shelter in Caizhou, where they were closely besieged by the Mongols on one side and the Song army on the other. Driven thus into a corner, the Jurchens fought with the courage of despair and long held out against the combined efforts of their enemies. At last, Emperor Aizong saw that the struggle could not be prolonged, and he prepared himself to end his life. When the enemy breached the city walls, Emperor Aizong committed suicide after passing the throne to his general Wanyan Chenglin. Wanyan Chenglin, historically known as Emperor Mo, ruled for less than a day before he was finally killed in battle. Thus the Jin dynasty came to an end on February 9, 1234. There are great men of the vanquished Jin who have gotten mixed up in odd jobs falling as low as butchering and peddling, or leaving to become Yellow Caps. All of them are still referred to by their old government [titles]. The family of Pacification Commissioner Wang has a number of men who push carts and are called 'Transport Commissioner' or 'Attendant Courtier.' In Changchun Palace, 'Palace of Long Spring,' there are many gentlemen of the vanquished Jin court, who by being there avoid baijiao, escape taxes and corvée labor, and receive clothing and food. It is to a great extent the cause for the people's sorrow and distress.[14] — Zhao Gong Mongol policies James Waterson cautioned against attributing the population drop in northern China to Mongol slaughter since much of the population may have moved to southern China under the Southern Song or died of disease and famine as agricultural and urban city infrastructure were destroyed.[15] The Mongols spared cities from massacre and sacking if they surrendered, such as Kaifeng, which was surrendered to Subetai by Xu Li,[16] Yangzhou, which was surrendered to Bayan by Li Tingzhi's second in command after Li Tingzhi was executed by the Southern Song,[17] and Hangzhou, which was spared from sacking when it surrendered to Kublai Khan.[18] Han Chinese and Khitan soldiers defected en masse to Genghis Khan against the Jurchen Jin dynasty.[19] Towns which surrendered were spared from sacking and massacre by Kublai Khan.[20] The Khitan reluctantly left their homeland in Manchuria as the Jin moved their primary capital from Beijing south to Kaifeng and defected to the Mongols.[21] Many Han Chinese and Khitans defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin dynasty. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze and Liu Heima (劉黑馬),[22] and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (蕭札剌) defected and commanded the three tumens in the Mongol army.[23] Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan.[24] Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.[25] There were four Han tumens and three Khitan tumens, with each tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan generals Shimo Beidi'er (石抹孛迭兒), Tabuyir (塔不已兒), and Xiao Zhongxi (蕭重喜; Xiao Zhala's son) commanded the three Khitan tumens and the four Han generals Zhang Rou (張柔), Yan Shi (嚴實), Shi Tianze and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan.[26][27][28][29] Shi Tianze, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and other Han Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state.[30] The Mongols valued physicians, craftsmen and religious clerics and ordered them to be spared from death and brought to them when cities were taken in northern China.[31] The Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters continued possessing their titles in the Mongol empire and Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.

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 The Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, also known as the Mongol–Jin War, was fought between the Mongol Empire and the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in Manchuria and North China. The war, which started in 1211, lasted over 23 years and ended with the complete conquest of the Jin dynasty by the Mongols in 1234. Background Main article: Jin–Song Wars The Jurchen rulers of the Jin dynasty collected tribute from some of the nomadic tribes living on the Mongol steppes and encouraged rivalries among them. When the Mongols were unified under Khabul in the 12th century, the Jurchens encouraged the Tatars to destroy them, but the Mongols were able to drive Jin forces out of their territory. The Tatars eventually captured Khabul's successor, Ambaghai, and handed him over to the Jin imperial court. Emperor Xizong of the Jin dynasty had ordered Ambaghai executed by crucifixion (nailed to a wooden mule). The Jin dynasty also conducted regular punitive expeditions against the Mongol nomads, either en...
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